The Feather of Ma’at vs. the Heart: Egyptian Mythology, Ritual, and Funerary Practices
A large portion of ancient civilizations have established a set of systems to use for survival. These include agriculture, trading, documentation, and mathematics. Ancient Egypt, located in the northeast of Africa and placed beside the Nile River. The Nile extends through the deserts of Egypt flowing from south to north (backward). Upstream Egypt was the South and downstream Egypt was the North. Due to the Niles existence in such a barren desert, Egyptian civilization was able to cultivate life and blossom into one of arguably the most remarkable and intricate societies known to mankind. The Egyptians are to thank for some of the technologies that were upgraded through history in serving our daily world today. For instance, papyrus, which was a form of paper, was made from the papyrus plant. The cubit, a form of measurement that was designed to size the length of one’s longest finger to their elbow. The most notable invention is the calendar which we rely on daily. Excluding the three annual seasons; the Egyptians created their calendar based on the sun and moon cycle, divided into 12 months and each month containing a total of 30 days. Additionally, they added an extra 5 days towards the end of the year. Thus, 365 days annually. While many of the inventions they have gifted humanity have survived the test of time, the mythological stories and ritualistic practices are to be highly credited for their persistence and the advancement of their society. Due to the mythology and worship of gods, the Egyptians were influenced both socially and culturally in regard to ritual and funerary practices.
The origins of Egyptian mythology date back to the early dynastic period (about 3000 BC to 2650 BC) in terms of written evidence and temples. The main deity and central god in the Egyptian pantheon is the sun god, Ra. Rightfully so, the town known as Iunu or Heliopolis was named “the city of the sun god” as inspired by Ra. Ra is said to have come to the world bringing light alongside him. He was the creator of everything as well as patron for the first pharaoh. The joyous tears of Ra brought forth human beings. Ra also brought forth his offspring; the air god Shu and the goddess of rain Tefnut. From Shu and Tefnut, the earth god Geb and the sky goddess Nut were created. Historically, Narmer was the first pharaoh however, mythologically speaking, the first pharaoh patron was Ra, thus, he had gifted Egypt animals such as the ox and lions alongside the Nile River. “From the twenty-sixth century BCE to the Roman Period, all rulers of Egypt called themselves Sons of Ra. The Enemies of Ra were the enemies of Egypt and Maat (the divine order)” (Pinch, page 199). Mythology influenced the pharaoh as well as the systems in which society was divided. The social classes in Egypt were composed of the pharaoh, officials, soldiers, priests, scribes, merchants, artisans, and farmers, and lastly slaves. Essentially, royal, free citizen, or a slave. The pharaohs were seen as appointed by gods; therefore, their image was worshipped by the commoners as god-like figure (demi-god).
Ancient Egypt was an agrarian society as farmers (peasants) were the large majority. Although the Egyptians calculated time as 365 days annually, their calendar follows 3 seasons and was based on the Nile River. The seasons were known as Akhet, Peret, and Shemu. Akhet was the time of inundation. Peret was the time to plant seeds and tend to the crops. Lastly, Shemu was the time to gather the annual harvest. Rituals can be best defined as “fixed sequences of actions, culturally based, which are determined to obtain a specific end” (Dr. Mizrach, class lecture). Life in ancient Egypt was ritualistic in nature. It was a collective and social action. The people relied on the Nile and farmers for their livelihood. During the times in which farming was not permissible on account of the flooding, time was spent building pyramids and temples as well as tending to the animals. As farming was a societal ritual as it was also a family ritual, as members of the family contributed to land. Firstly, the soil was broken down with the help of the men. Many animals were relied on for farming as well. An ox would plow the soil and later the women of the family would spread and scatter the seeds. Lastly, a herd of sheep buried the seeds with their hooves alongside other livestock. Animals were appreciated in Egypt as well as worshipped. Cats were kept as house pets but were also admired, all forms of feline animals were looked upon. Farmers would bring their pet cats to work the fields beside them as they can help with any mice infestation. Thus, the crops would flourish. Cats also have been known to hunt cobras and in Egyptian Mythology, Bastet, the cat goddess would battle Apep the serpent. Apep is seen as the opponent of the light and the bringer of chaos. Many Egyptian prayers were thought to ward Apep in ensuring that Ra has a pleasant journey across the sky.
Mythologically, the cat goddess Bastet was the offspring of Ra the sun god, and Isis the goddess of magic and wisdom. Bastet was the goddess of fertility, motherhood, as well as the protector of the home. Due to the worship of Bastet, the Ancient Egyptians believed in the sacredness of cats. The punishment for killing a cat was penalized by death. The last five days of the year (Dec 27th- 31st) were known as the demon days as the Egyptians considered them to be of bad luck. Good luck gifts were given amongst the people. Gifts including amulets, other forms of jewelry, and figurines of Bastet. It was said that Bastet and her symbolism for fertility and success would aid them in receiving a fruitful upcoming year. Bastet was depicted holding a sistrum and a menat. The menat was seen as divine protection against bad luck and evil spirits and the sistrum made rattling noises and was used in times of celebration. The followers of Bastet were mainly located in Bubastis. Bubastis held festivities in the name of Bastet and feline animals as a whole. Many tourists mummified their cats in the city, there were also cat cemeteries, this can be seen as a way to honor that which has served them. According to the Greek historian and writer Herodotus in An Account of Egypt states that; “during the annual festivities of Bubastis a great number of people sail to the city and partake in making music, dancing, and consuming large sums of wine.” This annual ritual is a form of worship to the goddess Bastet. Aside from being a goddess, Bastet has many great qualities in the eyes of the Egyptian people, and they regard her in high esteems. The link between humans and cats strengthens because of the mythology behind it.
Amongst the many daily rituals in Ancient Egypt, the funerary process is the most elaborate and respected. Death is not the end-of-life itself but merely a passage to another realm, the afterlife. The funerary ritual is extremely detailed, and bodies are preserved through mummification which began in 2600 BC. Typically, the common people were not mummified because the process was long and expensive. The pharaohs and members of the nobility were the ones to receive the 70-day mummification treatment. Once they have died physically, their body is cleansed. Since the body after death decays at rapid speed, excerebration was done by removing the brain through the nostril with the use of hooks. The priest’s worked as embalmers and the main priest wore the jackal mask of Anubis, the God of the dead. Next, the liver, lungs, stomach, and intestines are removed and embalmed separately and placed individually in containers called canopic jars. These jars were depicted with the imagery of the gods who were meant to guard the organs. Hapi (baboon-headed) who represents the North, guards the lungs. Duamutef (jackal-headed) who represents the East, guards the stomach. Imsety (human-headed) who represents the South, guards the liver. Lastly, Qebehsenef (falcon-headed) who represents the West, guards the intestines. The heart was not separated from the body as the Egyptians believed that to be the persons’ wisdom and essence. The heart was wrapped in linen and natron which consisted of baking soda and salt mixture. Upon doing so, the heart was later placed back into the chest of the corpse. It was also embellished in charms for protection and the embalmer would say prayers while conducting the ritual as well as adding prayers to the linen in writing. After the body had dried it was stuffed with linen, sawdust, Nile mud, resin etc. The embalmers added false eyes to the head. The body is then covered with oils and wrapped around with linen. The tomb in which the body was remined was adorned with jewels, ornate masks, and gold. Alongside the luxurious items were the practical daily items such as furniture, food, mummified pets, and sometimes mummified servants to serve in the afterlife. This ensured the spirit will have everything they need in the afterlife. The mummification was done in favor of the soul itself. Many Egyptians believed that the body was a sacred home for the spirit and did not intend on their souls being lost in the afterlife if the body was not kept in precise conditions. Once the physical aspect of the funerary practices has been carried out. The ceremony known as the opening of the mouth and eyes was conducted in which the priest would touch the body’s senses to awaken them for the afterlife. This transformed the deceased to an Akh which has both the Ka (double form) and the Ba (‘soul’ between earth and the heavens) as a union. The Akh was now ready to travel to the underworld and face the challenges of the final judgment before gaining entrance to the afterlife. The ceremony would allow the spirit of the deceased to see, hear, taste, speak, and breathe. The mummy is then placed in a coffin, or many coffins and the tomb is sealed. In many tombs, there will be a statue known as a serdab in a closed chamber.
The final judgment is one that the soul must endure after physical death in order to receive passage into the afterlife. The spirit must pass through the duat, the realm of the dead. This realm is home to many monsters, vast caverns, and lakes of fire. Apep, the serpent demon of chaos, waits to swallow souls. The Egyptian book of the dead contains funerary texts with spells, prayers, and codes as a guide for spirits to pass to the underworld and reach the goddess Ma’at. Ma’at is the goddess of truth as well as cosmic order and justice. Upon entering the underworld, the soul will be judged by 42 assessor gods. The gods must be convinced that the soul has lived a righteous life. The soul must address each god and declare a sin that they have not committed while they were alive. This is called the process of the negative confession or declaration of innocence. Upon this completion would be the weighing of the heart against the feather of Ma’at. The Egyptians used a heart scarab, an amulet made out of stone with the imagery of a dung-beetle. The amulet is used to silence the heart of the soul while it was being weighed. This was done to be certain that the heart could not bear false testimony against the deceased. The amulets have spells carved into them. According to spell 30B in the Egyptian Book of the Dead, “Do not stand up against / me as a witness; do not contradict me in the court; do nothing against me in front of the deities; / do not treat me with hostility in front of the Keeper of the Balance…Do not speak lies against me beside the great god” (translation. Walters Museum). The heart is then weighed against the feather, Anubis will perform this task. If the heart is heavier than the feather the crocodile demon Ammit, the devourer, will consume the soul. If the heart is pure and lighter than the feather or balances, Ra, the sun god, takes the soul to Osirus, God of the underworld. Osirus will then have the final approval of the soul’s fate. Once approved the soul is said to have a long journey ahead through the field of reeds and is granted an eternity of tranquility.
Conclusively, mythology and ritual have heavily impacted the way that the Ancient Egyptians navigate their daily lives. The majority of the day consists of repetition and ritual such as tending to the land and building. All of the social classes have a role to play in ensuring that they advance. Mythology has been the backbone of the Ancient Egyptians in the way that funerary practice is their primary focus throughout their life. Culturally, they do not frown upon death or see it as a melancholic affair but rather as love and admiration for life, so much so that they wish to enjoy it for eternity. This belief in immortality has been the gateway to influencing their ritualistic nature.
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